Table 3 Detailed information of included studies

Jodi Sturge 2020 [14]

Netherlands

Older adults experiencing memory problems and living at home

Mixed methods: interview, GPS data,

Qualitative GIS

The GPS data, travel diary data and interview transcripts were analyzed using a grounded visualization approach.

A qualitative GIS approach results in an enhanced understanding of activity space patterns.

Jacobo Ruza 2014 [15]

America

Older adults in Palo Alto

Qualitative: case study

Web-based GIS tools

The framework includes assessment using web-based GIS tools.

This study highlighted open spaces, public transportation and services for aged population.

Danny L. Scerpella 2019 [16]

America

250 family caregivers and persons living with dementia

Quantitative: data and trial

GIS analysis, buffers

Geographically predict locations based on data.

This study is a novel usage of GIS methodologies utilized retrospectively to geographically predict locations.

Long Cheng 2019 [17]

China

12,000 households and 35,600 individuals selected in a randomized way

Quantitative: data and model

Spatial expansion model, database

Variables are measured based on the Nanjing city’s GIS database

Older adults have potential access to smaller number of recreational opportunities than younger adults, which may increase elderly’s likelihood of social isolation/exclusion.

Peiman Amini-Behbahani 2020 [18]

Australia

Older adults in residential aged-care centres

Quantitative: clustering method

Calculation

Analyse the walking distance and destinations.

This study highlights the importance of existence of guideline or regulation for the analysis of urban environment prior to allocation of a site or building to residential aged care.

Mark W. Horner

2015[19]

America

People in Leon County aged 65 and up

Quantitative: data and accessibility model

TransCAD’s network analysis and matrix functions

Implementing accessibility models in a GIS environment.

Typically those 85+ had the highest level of accessibility.

Zhu Jin

2018 [20]

America

Adults aged 65 years and older living in northern Manhattan

Quantitative: agent-based simulation model

ABM (agent-based simulation) created by GIS

An agent-based model (ABM) was created with a GIS to simulate the influence of social ties and transportation choices.

Social support may exert substantial influence on the daily activities and health behaviors of older adults.

Tayyab Ikram Shah

2017 [21]

Canada

Senior population (age 65 and over)

Quantitative: model

3SFCA

Examining access to family physician and nurse practitioner services using a GIS-based accessibility approach.

GIS-based accessibility measures are sensitive to the quality of input data and practice considerations.

Zhe Wang

2010 [22]

America

114 older adults from five assisted-living facilities in Houston, TX

Quantitative: multivariate analyses, data analysis

Objective measures (from GIS), GIS data

Characteristics of the environments at the site and neighborhood levels were assessed using GIS measurements.

If the site and neighborhood environments are designed with walking-supportive conditions, older adults may choose to walk more, which in turn can promote their health and reduce the societal demand for senior services.

Qiuyi Zhang 2018 [23]

America

Older adults living in the neighborhoods of northern Manhattan, New York City.

Quantitative: agent-based model, GIS

Data, GIS environment

The spatial dimension is simulated through the travel costs incurred in the GIS-based model environment.

Proximity to screening and treatment facilities is an important factor affecting individual decisions to seek health services.

Tiantian Gu 2018 [24]

China

Elderly people over 60 years old in Nanjing.

Quantitative: two-stage optimization model, greedy algorithm

Data, location specifying

Deep insights into spatial data are revealed by GIS techniques.

The primary data and secondary data are input as the attributes of the point, polyline and polygon. This makes it possible to process as much spatial data as possible through GIS techniques.

Huanhuan Zhu

2021 [25]

China

Elderly aged 65 and above who used the ambulance in 2020

Quantitative: gravity model, empirical Bayesian Kriging (EBK) interpolation analysis

Interpolation, preliminary mapping, buffer analysis, kernel density and overlay analysis

Using GIS-based tools to evaluate the spatial accessibility in conjunction with the spatial distribution of aging people, available road networks, and prehospital EMS facilities.

The elderly’s spatial access to prehospital EMS was imbalanced in the study area.

Yan Ma

2016 [26]

Japan

Elderly in a random sampling in Kanazawa city

Quantitative: ABM

Dataset

The model has been tested by using the real GIS dataset of a Japanese local city.

The agent-based DC center location model could competently simulate the entire Japanese DC center development process.

Zacharias Dermatis 2020 [27]

Greece

A sample of 897 questionnaires, collected from a number of open elderly care centers

Quantitative: data, questionnaires, Spearman test

Data, mapping

Obtained results were presented, using GIS system, as a means to visually illustrate socio-economic indicators in different geographical positions.

The results of the current survey are located automatically in geographic maps as GIS, in order to be shared and analyzed easily.

Elizabeth Hames

2016 [28]

America

1218 older adults over 65 years old in South Florida

Quantitative: principal components analysis (PCA), spatial analysis

Mapping

Create and map age-stratified vulnerability scores using a geographic information system (GIS).

The use of geographic and statistical techniques to explore local factors related to aging demonstrates the benefits of heightened data granularity.

Jean Michael Marcelin 2016 [29]

America

Population age 65 and over in Leon County

Quantitative: p-Median modeling

Data, spatial network optimization

analysis

Using ArcGIS 10.2.2 and TransCAD 6.0 to manage the data and to create the final maps for this study.

The Population aged 65 and over when specified as relief demand tends to bear the higher relative burden of the travel time which decreases their overall accessibility to disaster relief.

Yang Cheng 2012 [30]

China

Elderly in Beijing

Quantitative: data and GIS methods

Shortest path analysis, a two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method

Two GIS-based methods are used to study the distribution pattern of RCF service areas and spatial accessibility.

The results of spatial accessibility vary by using different methods.

Raj Patel 2019 [31]

Australia

Aging population residing within 50 km of the General Post Office of metropolitan Sydney

Quantitative: data,

Mapping, QGIS

Using GIS to examine the spatial accessibility of the public transport network and dental provider locations.

This knowledge deficit can now be addressed thanks to advances in the field of geospatial analysis, coupled with the decreasing cost and improving usability of GIS

Mark W. Horner

2017 [32]

America

Vulnerable ageing populations

Quantitative: spatial data, vector balancing algorithm

GIS-based network optimisation methodology, spatial data

Operationalising the special needs demand for the shelter modelling was done using GIS. TransCAD GIS3 was used to manage the spatial data.

Outputs of GIS modelling must be weighed against other needs and considerations in the implementation phase.

Terri Lewinson 2016 [33]

America

17 nondriving older adults

Mixed methods: interview, data analysis

Data, mapping, buffering

Using GIS technology to display and analyze community-level data. Public transportation routes were obtained from a County GIS Data Browser.

The ease by which public transit users can transfer buses should be more coordinated, so as to allow for greater access to community resources.

Jong-Hwan Park

2020 [34]

China (Taiwan)

1040 older Taiwanese

adults

Quantitative: survey data, binary logistic regression models

Data from GIS

Using data derived from GIS. Neighborhood destinations were assessed using geographic information systems (GIS) software.

Neighborhoods with more utilitarian destinations were associated with excessive sedentary time among older women.

Blake Byron Walker

2019 [35]

Canada

286,211 persons comprising the total population aged 65+ years

Quantitative: Spatial-epidemiological approach, questionnaire, moving-average linear model

Mapping

Each facility location in the study area was mapped using GIS. The calculation of local rates used GIS.

By highlighting regions of high and low service ratios, we were able to identify gaps in access as well as opportunities to improve equity in RC and AL for seniors.

Ke Ruan

2018 [36]

China

People aged 60 and above in each block unit of Xi’an City

Quantitative: evaluation model

Data, potential Model

The urban road distribution data of the research area was established on the ArcGIS platform. The public transportation operation route included in the collection was loaded into ArcGIS.

Solely increasing the projected location of hospitals alone cannot completely solve the unfavorable situation of the low accessibility of HOUHs in cities.

SAMINA Z. IKRAM

2015 [37]

America

Mainly people aged 65 and above

Quantitative: data

Proximity method, 2SFCA

The proximity method uses the distance, and 2SFCA method considers the match ratio between providers and population as well as the complex spatial interaction between them.

Compared to the other groups, African-Americans are disproportionally concentrated in areas closer to their nearest pharmacy in terms of travel time, while white ratios tend to be higher in areas more distant from a pharmacy.

Carlos Mena 2020 [38]

Chile

284 adults with ages from 60 to 74 years old from Talca City

Quantitative: spatial autocorrelation analysis, Moran’s I

Management, processing and analyzing data

GIS analyses were performed to detect global and local geographic clustering.

The distribution of older people registered as frail was found to be associated with certain areas characterized by poor urban infrastructures and socioeconomic levels where high-frailty conditions are commonly present.

Hui-Ching Wu

2018 [39]

China(Taiwan)

3,148,283 elderly individuals (age 65+)

Quantitative: Gini coefficient, “median-mean” skewness, dataset

Model builder, network analyst extension, domain partition OD cost matrix calculation

This study combined sociological perspectives and a GIS-based approach called “domain partition

OD cost matrix calculation”.

Community-based care resources can be important social support systems in promoting elderly health.

Nadine Schuurman 2015 [40]

Canada

Elderly aged over 65 years old in Newfoundland

Quantitative: sample phone survey, datasets, gravity model

Spatial model, ODMatrix function, network analyst

Using the ODMatrix function provided within the Network analyst extension in ArcGIS

In each case, a combination of topography, historical settlement patterns and health allocation decision-making have combined to produce unique patterns of access to this end-of-life care.

T. Hanibuchi 2011 [41]

Japan

Japanese elderly aged 65 and over

Quantitative: survey, logistic regression

Spatial analyst

Six types of geographical accessibility to the dental clinics were calculated using GIS.

The importance of the means of transportation as one of the reasons for the gender difference in the geographical access to dental care.

Federica Gaglione 2021 [42]

Italy and England

Aged 65 and above

Quantitative: AHP, multivariate statistical analysis,

Network analysis

The set of variables has been associated in the GIS environment with each arc of the pedestrian graph.

The accessibility levels also identify the critical areas that require priority interventions and the areas where it is possible to increase the levels of pedestrian accessibility to urban services.

Jongjit Rittirong 2016 [43]

Thailand

The elderly (≥60 years) with chronic ailments in Kanchanaburi Province

Quantitative: statistical analysis, data, survey, regression analysis, logit model

Spatial network analysis,

Possible linking travel routes were calculated using GIS spatial network analysis (ArcGIS).

Distance did impact the frequency of healthcare visits, though these effects were weakened when co-residing with an adult child and/or spouse.

Ti-Ching Peng

2020 [44]

China(Taiwan)

Elderly in Taiwan

Quantitative: data, two-stage least squared model (2SLS)

E2SFCA, Spatial quantile regression (SQR) model

With the help of ArcGIS, the addresses were converted into longitudes and latitudes on GIS map layers for spatial measures

Residents living in lower priced neighbourhoods may dislike ambulances’ annoying sound of sirens, while residents living in higher valued neighbourhoods may on the contrary appreciate ambulances’ healthcare services.

Matthew Lee Smith

2018 [45]

America

At-risk older adults in rural areas

Quantitative: data, descriptive statistics

Mapping

Geographic information systems (GIS) geospatially represented the collective reach of the eight interventions.

To increase older adults’ access to and utilization of evidence-based fall prevention programs, interventions must be delivered where older adults feel comfortable and regularly congregate.

Shivangi Prasad

2017 [46]

America

Elderly aged ≥65 years

Quantitative: cumulative distribution functions, multiple comparisons test

proximity analysis, data

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) proximity analysis and cumulative distribution functions were used.

To increase older adults’ access to and utilization of evidence-based fall prevention programs, interventions must be delivered where older adults feel comfortable and regularly congregate.

Chung-Chih Lin

2006 [47]

China (Taiwan)

Elderly persons suffering from dementia

Quantitative: questionnaire, global system for mobile

communications (GSM), radio frequency identification (RFID)

GIS parser, image

Convert the longitude and latitude coordinates into a street map location using a GPS and GIS parser.

Analysis of system performance and reliability using different telecoms and different models of mobile phones reveals that the system can provide family members with the patient’s latest location information within 34 seconds.

Takashi Naruse

2017 [48]

Japan

Elderly people living within reach of HVN agencies for each of 17 municipalities in one low-density prefecture

Quantitative: multilevel logistic analysis, data

Locating on the map

The population of elderly people was calculated using public data and geographic information systems.

Municipalities with a higher reachable proportion of elderly residents showed significantly higher HVN (Home visiting nurses) service use rates.

Eoin O’Mahony 2019 [49]

Ireland

People aged 65 years or older to a large hospital in Dublin

Quantitative: retrospective analysis,

QGIS, GIS analysis and visualization, mapping

Address-matched records were analysed using QGIS

Older patients travel shorter distances on average, based on mean straight-line distance from their home address.

Ong Ming Lee Deborah 2018 [50]

Singapore

Singaporeans aged 65 and over

Quantitative: Python, distance decay function

E2SFCA

GIS concept and methods have been utilized to measure geographical accessibility of one major type of primary healthcare services.

This concentration of efforts for a certain demographic group may also mean overlooking the other, namely the elderly.

Gerardo Carpentieri 2020 [51]

Italy

Elderly aged 65 and over in Naples

Quantitative: data, geoprocessing,

2SFCA, network analysis operations, mapping

A geodatabase using GIS software, containing different types of data.

Accessibility to the main urban facilities is clearly a decisive element to guarantee paths for the promotion and protection of wellbeing, in particular for the elderly.

Sunwei Liu 2020 [52]

China

Elderly in 49 communities in Xi’an

Quantitative: mainly GIS analysis

2SFCA, potential model, proximity analysis

The two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method and a potential model based on the Geographic Information System (GIS) were used.

Distance is not a determinant factor affecting the elderly to choose community care facilities.

Luisa N. Borrell

2006 [53]

America

Adults aged 65 and older in New York

Quantitative: database

Spatial analysis

ArcGlS software was used to create a GIS incorporating relevant data from a variety of sources.

GIS represents an emerging tool to understand and address oral health and health care disparities among seniors by race/ethnicity and ability to pay for services.

Wisam Kamil 2021 [3]

Australia

People aged 65 years and older

Quantitative: data

GIS analysis

GISs were applied in the analysis of public health-related data.

There is an increasing density of the aged population in socio-economically deprived areas, with inadequate distribution of dental services.

Jung In Kim 2015 [54]

America

Ageing population in Dallas

Qualitative: retrospective case study

Web-based GIS tools

An evidence-based decision-support system, enhanced with a GIS.

GIS tools have the power to display complex analysis results in an easy-to-comprehend, visual manner.

Barbara A. Hirshorn 2003 [55]

America

The 60 and older Lancaster County population

Quantitative: data

Overlay analysis, buffer analysis

The association of attribute and spatial data within a GIS permitted the visualization and analysis of older population-specific needs.

The ability to rapidly update information within GIS permits the analysis of longitudinal spatial processes, making this technology well suited for the evaluation of community intervention effectiveness.

Elena Matei 2018 [56]

Romania

Ageing of the Romanian population

Mixed methods: spatial analysis, in-depth interviews, survey, data

Mapping

Using GIS spatial analysis for mapping the location.

Social support network for the elderly must be continuously adapted to the demands of the society.

Nikolaos Yiannakoulias 2003 [57]

Canada

Community-living residents of Alberta 66 years of age and over

Quantitative: empirical Bayes estimates, Gamma distribution model, Monte Carlo hypothesis

GIS analysis

Using a GIS to describe the pattern of emergency department reported falls of the elderly in the Capital Health Region.

Descriptive geography can enhance the effectiveness of injury prevention programs by identifying zones of high risk.

Yongjiu Xia 2021 [58]

China

Ageing population in Hefei

Quantitative: data

GIS spatial methods, kernel density, network analysis

Geographic coordinates are obtained and imported into GIS. The collected data were visualized by GIS, and a basic database for spatial analysis was established.

Conclusion of evaluation on rationality of spatial allocation of old-age service facilities is closely related to spatial scale.

D. Taylor 2019 [59]

Australia

People who are frail living in Australia aged 65 years or more

Quantitative: data calculation,

Mapping, Geospatial modelling

An example of the data integration capabilities of GIS.

Reducing frailty will lead to benefits in well-being for older Australians in addition to reductions in health care costs.

Tom Carlson 2010 [60]

America

2000 U.S. census data for adults ≥ 65 years of age

Quantitative: data

Proximity analysis, geographic buffers, network analysis

Using GIS to create a site selection strategy.

GIS can be used to determine actual travel time, and may facilitate the selection of community-based prevention program sites to maximize accessibility and utilization by targeted populations.

Min Cheng 2020 [61]

China

Ageing population in Jing’an District

Quantitative: modified immune algorithm (MIA), sensitivity analysis

Spatial optimization, visualization

GIS is used to extract information on spatial relationships and visually display optimization results.

The rational configuration of RCFs helps to improve the ability of urban old-age service.

Kwangyul Choi

2021 [62]

Canada

Ageing population in Calgary

Quantitative: data

Spatial Analysis

Using spatial analysis to identify communities of concern for older adults from the perspective of accessibility.

The application of GIS to perform spatial analyses can be adopted to other areas or regions not only to gain better understanding of the spatial patterns of necessary resources for older adults but also to identify communities of concerns for them.

Long Cheng 2020 [63]

China

Ageing population in Nanjing

Quantitative: data, Gini coefficient

2SFCA, database

A two-step floating catchment area method was utilised to measure accessibility and the Gini coefficient was applied to show inequity.

Upper-tier hospitals are more aggregated and thus more unevenly accessible than the lower-tiers.

Guangping Chen

2020 [64]

China

Older adults aged 60 and over

Quantitative: data, Python, case study, Sensitivity analysis

2SFCA

Based on a road network analysis, a Gaussian two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method is employed to calculate EMSA scores.

The elderly in inner-city Wuhan suffer different potential health risk levels at different hours when they must access healthcare facilities.

Rebecca Evans

2016 [65]

Australia

High proportions of over 65-year-old people

Quantitative: data, statistical analysis

Spatial analysis, mapping

A geographic information system was used to assess geographic access.

Tools such as GIS will be increasingly useful for planners involved in health service design at a population level.

Carmen Guida

2021 [66]

Italy

The elderly within the city of Milan affected by Covid

Quantitative: data

Data collection, GIS analysis, visualization, modified 2SFCA, network analysis

A GIS-based procedure was developed to evaluate the elderly’s level of accessibility to primary health services.

Entire neighbourhoods’ elderly populations suffer from very poor accessibility to primary health services and their condition deteriorates even more because of limited services and activities.

Jing Luo

2018 [67]

China

Ageing population in Wuhan

Quantitative: data, sensitivity analysis, Jenks Natural Breaks method

E2SFCA, network analysis

General hospital data included vector GIS format and volume data.

The study on measuring and analysing AMSE may help to understand the seriousness of the ageing problem from the perspective of medical care.

Wendong Chen

2021 [68]

China

Bus services among the older population in Nanjing

Quantitative: mainly GIS analysis

Adjusted Gaussian 2SFCA method,

The Spatial Join tool, ArcGIS, was used to infer the nearest boarding platform.

More health care resources could be allocated to those home stations with low levels of health care accessibility or those which are deemed inaccessible

Sojung Park 2019 [69]

America

Low-income senior

Quantitative: data, principal component analysis (PCA), bivariate analyses (ANOVA)

Network analysis, visualization

Using network analysis, an advanced GIS technique.

Living in subsidized senior housing in disadvantaged neighborhoods may perpetuate socioeconomic disparities in health and well-being for low income older adults.

Yuanhong Ma

2021 [70]

China

Old people aged 60 or above in Harbin

Quantitative: data, spatial analysis

Data, spatial analysis, mapping, weighted overlay method

By clearly identifying gaps for each type of facility, the proposed GIS-NEMA then could be used for identifying the ideal distribution of essential facilities for aging in place in Harbin, China.

China, the GIS-NEMA offers an effective means to identify ideal service networks as Harbin and other cities in China build age-friendly cities.

Federica Gaglione

2019 [71]

Italy

People aged 65 and older

Quantitative: data, spatial analysis

Data, spatial analysis, mapping

For the environmental, physical and functional subsystems quantitative data are obtained through spatial analysis in the GIS environment.

Integrated actions should be taken both on the functional and physical subsystems, in order to improve urban accessibility and guarantee social inclusion for the elderly by enabling them to actively participate in ‘urban life’.

Yanyan Gao

2022 [72]

China

The elderly, aged 65 and above, treated in medical facilities in Hefei

Quantitative: questionnaire, location-allocation models, network analysis

Network analysis, mapping

The optimization scheme for the layout of medical facilities could be obtained by constructing a location–allocation model in ArcGIS.

The actual needs of the elderly should be taken into account when discussing their issues.

Hyemin Cho

2021 [73]

South Korea

Elderly people in South Korea

Quantitative: data

Network analysis, spatial analysis, mapping

Generating a map that includes road networks, public transportation routes and stops, and welfare facilities using a geographic information system (GIS).

To improve the accessibility of low-accessibility areas, it is suggested that modifying the existing bus routes or adding new transit lines would reduce travel time of the elderly to welfare facilities.