Table 2 Overview of RCTs that examined the effect of vitamin D supplementation on physical functioning

Grady et al., 1991 [74]^a

98 community dwellers, age 70+ yrs., 54 % female.

No

No

0.25 μg 1,25(OH)₂D₃ twice daily vs. placebo for 6 months.

Muscle strength (quadriceps).

NS.

Pfeifer et al., 2000 [75]

148 community dwelling females, age 70+ yrs.

Yes: 25(OH)D <50 nmol/L.

No

800 IU/day vitD₃ + 1200 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 8 weeks.

Body sway.

Reduced sway in vitD group.

Bischoff et al., 2003 [76]

122 geriatric inpatient females, age 63–99 yrs.

No

No

800 IU/day vitD₃ + 1200 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 12 weeks.

Musculoskeletal function (knee muscle strength, grip strength, TUG).

Improved musculoskeletal function in vitD group.

Kenny et al., 2003 [77]

60 community dwelling males, age 65–87 yrs.

No

No

1000 IU/day vitD₃ + 500 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 6 months.

Muscle strength and power (leg, handgrip), physical performance (SPPB, TUG, supine-to-stand test).

NS.

Latham et al., 2003 [78]

243 geriatric in- and outpatients, age 65+ yrs., 53 % female.

No

Yes: frailty.

Single dose of 300,000 IU vitD₂vs. placebo + exercise training vs. social visits for 10 weeks.

Physical performance (knee strength, balance, TUG, gait speed) after 3 and 6 months.

NS.

Dhesi et al., 2004 [31]

139 outpatients, age 65+ yrs., 78 % female.

Yes: 25(OH)D <30 nmol/L.

Yes: history of falls.

Single intramuscular injection of 600,000 IU vitD₂ vs. placebo.

Postural sway, physical performance (gait speed, chair stands, stair climbing), quadriceps strength after 6 months.

Improved physical performance and sway in vitD group.

Gallagher, 2004 [79]

289 postmenopausal females, mean age 72 yrs.

No

No

0.5 μg/day calcitriol vs. placebo + estrogen / progesterone treatment vs. placebo for 3 yrs.

Physical performance (grip strength, gait speed, chair stands).

Improved chair stands and gait speed in vitD group (p < .1).

Sato et al., 2005 [80]

96 females with post-stroke hemiplegia, mean age 74 yrs.

No

No

1000 IU/day vitD₂ vs. placebo for 2 yrs.

Muscle strength (of the intact hip).

Improved muscle strength in vitD group.

Bischoff-Ferrari et al., 2006 [81]

64 institutionalized older females, age 65–97 yrs.

No

No

800 IU vitD₃ + 1200 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 3 months.

Postural and dynamic balance.

NS.

Bunout et al., 2006 [82]

92 community dwellers, age 70+ yrs., 88 % female.

Yes: 25(OH)D <40 nmol/L.

No

400 IU/day vitD₃ + 800 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone + exercise training vs. control for 9 months.

Muscle strength (quadriceps, hand grip), gait speed, physical performance (SPPB, TUG), postural sway.

Improved gait speed and sway in vitD group.

Smedshaug et al., 2007 [83]

60 institutionalized persons, mean age 82 yrs., 65 % female.

No

No

400 IU/day vitD₃ vs. placebo for 1 yr.

Grip strength.

NS.

Brunner et al., 2008 [84]

2364 postmenopausal females, age 50–79 yrs.

No

No

400 IU/day vitD₃ + 1000 mg/day calcium vs. placebo for 5 yrs.

Grip strength, chair stands, gait speed.

NS.

Moreira-Pfrimer et al., 2009 [85]

46 institutionalized geriatric patients, age 62–94 yrs., 79 % female.

No

No

150,000 IU/month vitD₃ for 2 months, followed by 90,000 IU/month vs. placebo for 4 months + . 1000 mg/day calcium.

Lower limb muscle strength (hip, knee).

Improved lower limb muscle strength (both hip and knee) in vitD group.

Pfeifer et al., 2009 [86]

242 community dwellers, age 70–94 yrs., 75 % female.

Yes: 25(OH)D <78 nmol/L.

No

800 IU/day vitD₃ + 1000 mg/day calcium vs calcium alone for 12 months.

Muscle strength (quadriceps), body sway, TUG.

Improved quadriceps strength, sway and TUG performance in vitD group.

Songpatanasilp et al., 2009 [87]^a

42 postmenopausal females, age 65+ yrs.

Yes: hypovitaminosis D (range NR)

No

0.5 mg/day alfacalcidol + 1500 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 12 weeks.

Muscle strength (quadriceps).

Improved quadriceps muscle strength in vitD group.

Janssen et al., 2010 [88]^a

70 female geriatric outpatients, age 65+ yrs.

Yes: 25(OH)D 20–50 nmol/L.

No

400 IU/day vitD₃ + 500 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 6 months.

Muscle strength (knee, leg, hand grip), mobility (TUG), gait speed.

NS.

Lips et al., 2010 [89]

226 community dwellers, age 70+ yrs., % female NR.

Yes: 25(OH)D 15–50 nmol/L.

No

8400 IU/week vitD₃ vs. placebo for 16 weeks.

Postural sway, SPPB.

Reduced sway in vitD group, only in persons with higher baseline sway.

Witham et al., 2010 [90]

105 patients with systolic heart failure, age 70+ yrs., 34 % female.

Yes: 25(OH)D <50 nmol/L.

No

100,000 IU vitD₂ vs. placebo at baseline and after 10 weeks.

Gait speed, mobility (TUG), functional limitations.

NS.

Zhu et al., 2010 [91]

261 community dwelling females, age 70–90 yrs.

Yes: 25(OH)D <60 nmol/L.

No

VitD₂ 1000 IU/day + 1000 mg/day calcium vs. calcium alone for 1 yr.

Lower limb muscle strength (ankle, knee, hip), mobility (TUG).

Improved hip muscle strength and mobility in vitD group, only in persons with lowest baseline function scores.

Glendenning et al., 2012 [92]

686 postmenopausal females, age 70+ yrs.

No

No

150,000 IU vitD₃ vs. placebo at baseline and after 3 and 6 months.

Grip strength, mobility (TUG).

NS.

Hornikx et al., 2012 [93]

49 COPD patients, age 50+ yrs., 24 % female.

No

No

100,000 IU vitD₃/month vs. placebo for 3 months.

Muscle strength (inspiratory, quadriceps), gait speed, maximal exercise capacity (cycle ergometer test)

Improved inspiratory muscle strength in vitD group.

Kampman et al., 2012 [94]

68 multiple sclerosis patients, age 21–50 yrs., 71 % female.

No

No

20,000 IU vitD₃/week vs. placebo for 2 yrs.

Grip strength.

NS.

Hara et al., 2013 [95]

94 postmenopausal females with osteoporosis, age 55–75 yrs.

No

No

1 μg/day alfacalcidol + 200 mg/day calcium + 35 mg/week alendronate vs. calcium and alendronate alone for 4 months.

Muscle strength (back extensor).

Improved back extensor strength in younger vitD subgroup.

McAlindon et al., 2013 [96]

146 adults with knee osteoarthritis (OA), age 45+ yrs., 61 % female.

No

Yes: presence of symptomatic knee osteoarthritis.

2000 IU/day vitD₃ with dose escalation to obtain serum levels of >90 nmol/L vs. placebo for 2 yrs.

Gait speed, chair stands.

NS.

Sanghi et al., 2013 [97]

103 adults with knee osteoarthritis, age 40–74 yrs., 64 % female.

No

Yes: presence of symptomatic knee osteoarthritis.

60,000 IU/day vitD₃ for 10 days followed by 60,000 IU/month vs. placebo for 12 months.

Functional limitations (WOMAC).

Small improvement of physical function in vitD group.

Knutsen et al., 2014 [98]

215 non-western immigrants, age 18–50 yrs., 73 % female.

No

No

1000 or 400 IU vitD3/day vs. placebo for 16 weeks.

Grip strength, chair stands, muscle strength and power.

NS.

Wood et al., 2014 [99]

293 postmenopausal females, age 60–70 yrs.

No

No

400 or 1000 IU/day vitD₃ vs. placebo for 12 months.

Grip strength.

NS.

Rolighed et al., 2015 [100]

46 patients with primary hyperparathyroidism, age 29–77 yrs., 76 % female.

Yes, 25(OH)D <80 nmol/L.

No

2800 IU/day vitD₃ vs. placebo for 12 months.

Muscle strength (knee, elbow, hand grip), chair stands, mobility (TUG), postural sway.

NS.