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Table 2 Intervention descriptions by type

From: Interventions to address social connectedness and loneliness for older adults: a scoping review

Intervention Type

Components & Activities

Mode of Delivery

Doses Described

Personal Contact [17, 44,45,46,47,48,49,50]

(8 studies/reports)

Scheduled contact with another person.

1. Personal contact: Scheduled contact with someone from one’s social network (e.g. a family member or friend) or a volunteer who may be similar to the recipient on some characteristics (e.g. age, gender, interests, culture). Discussions are unscripted and informal in nature. Personal contacts may be specifically trained to offer emotional support, and may or may not be permitted to provide instrumental support (e.g., transportation, shopping, minor housekeeping and repairs, letter writing/correspondence, or meal preparation).

• One-to-one

• Face-to-face, phone, email, or videoconference

• Researcher supports training with videoconference equipment

• Usually weekly

• 5 min to 1 h or more per interaction

• 3 to 36 months

Activity & Discussion Groups [51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]

(7 studies, 11 reports)

Engagement with a new group of people in an activity and/or facilitated discussion.

1. Group Activity Participation: joining a new group, and engaging in an activity of interest (e.g. song-writing, gardening projects, painting, pottery, dance, music, poetry, drama, jewelry making, storytelling, therapeutic writing, exercise, etc.)

2. Group Discussion: joining a new group, and engaging in facilitated discussion focused on a pre-determined topic of interest to the participants (e.g. movie discussion, bible discussion, role of the retiree) sharing of personal experiences. Group members may be taught how to offer emotional support to one another.

All interventions of this type either addressed component 1 [57, 58], component 2 [54, 55, 57, 59,60,61], or both components 1&2 [51,52,53]

• Group of 5 to 9 people

• Face-to-face sessions held in a neutral location (e.g. an activity room).

• Facilitated (e.g. by a health care provider, researcher, university student, professional artist) who guides discussion and provides resources (e.g. songbooks, painting supplies).

• Sessions once or twice per week

• 90 min to 6 h per session

• 3 to 72 weeks

Animal Contact [62,63,64,65,66,67,68]

(6 studies, 7 reports)

Scheduled contact with an animal

1. Animal Contact: contact with an animal, usually a cat or dogs; animal simulations have also been used (e.g. a robotic seal). Activity with the animal is self-guided and may include talking to, holding, petting, playing with, grooming, or walking the animal on a leash. A person’s preference for animal type (e.g. cat or dog) as well as size (e.g. small or large) may be assessed in order to individualize the treatment. Sometimes, the person is assigned to one animal to have contact with for all sessions.

• Face-to-face

• One-to-one in a person’s private room OR to a group (size has ranged from 2 to 13) in a common space of a long-term care facility (e.g. activity room, garden, etc.).

• A pet attendant brings and supervises animals

• 1 to 3 times per week

• 30 to 90 min per session

• 3 to 24 weeks

OR

• Animal lives at the long term care or assisted living facility and residents can seek out contact

Skills Course [69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76]

(6 studies, 8 reports)

Courses delivered to develop participants’ personal skills.

1. Skills instruction: Instruction given to older adults to improve their ability to have contact with others and/or to enhance their existing friendships, or to make new friends. The activities differ depending on the type of skills that are taught. Skills taught have included: mindfulness-based stress reduction [76], use of a computer and internet [74, 75], those supporting friendship development (e.g. self-esteem, reflection on expectations of friendships, analysis of one’s network, goal and boundary-setting) [69,70,71,72], and self-management (to meet needs of comfort, stimulation, affection, behavioral confirmation and status [73]).

• Face-to-face

• Usually group (size has ranged from 5 to 15) (one study was one-to-one [75])

• Lead by trained clinicians, researchers, experienced instructors

• Usually weekly

• 2 to 4 h per session

• 3 to 12 lessons

• Some also include skills practice at home

Varied/Non-Specific [40, 41, 77,78,79,80]

(5 studies, 6 reports)

Broad, multifaceted programs not focused on a single type of intervention

1. Service delivery or social assistance: These are usually multi-component interventions, but the different components are not clearly conceptualized or described, and are described broadly as improving service delivery within a community. Types of services offered in a single program to a community may be related to any combination of: increased fitness or arts programs, or other social/leisure activities; improved transportation; access to information or resources; and/or consultation with medical, nursing, counseling, financial or housing experts.

Unclear as to who delivered different services and/or how these were delivered

• Programs lasted for 6 months to 2 years

• Unclear what individuals within a community would have received

Model of Care [81, 82]

(2 studies/reports)

Implementation of a new philosophy for care provision (i.e. the Eden Philosophy)

1. Increase spontaneous, resident-driven and purposeful interaction with plants, animals and children: the Eden philosophy is about creating a ‘human habitat’ by providing opportunity for residents to interact as desired with plants, animals and children in their daily life in order to address issues related to loneliness, boredom and helplessness experienced by residents of long-term care facilities. Both interventions described staff training to understand the philosophy.

One intervention also stated that work teams were formed to increase the number of plants, animals and involvement with children in the facility by opening a day-care program [81].

Unclear who was trained, and what implementation of this philosophy looked like in practice.

Unclear what facilities actually did to implement the philosophy

Reminiscence [83, 84]

(2 studies/reports)

Recalling and discussing past memories and experiences

1. Reminiscence: A topic or theme is provided for the session (e.g. school days, holiday traditions, first house and anniversaries, family histories and life stories, etc.) and participants share with the group their recollections.

• Face-to-face in a comfortable setting

• Group (size not reported or ≤ 10)

• Lead by facilitators trained in reminiscence therapy and who may have experience working with older adults

• 1 to 2 times per week

• 1 to 1.5 h

• 4 to 8 weeks

Support Group [85, 86]

(2 studies/reports)

Sharing personal challenges and receiving emotional or informational support.

1. Peer support group: Participants attend meetings where they select areas of discussion related to their needs and challenges that they face. Peer and professionals provide information resources and/or emotional support related to identified challenges.

• Face-to-face

• Group (size range from 5 to 12)

• Co-lead by peers who had strong interpersonal skills and professionals (e.g. nurse, minister, social worker, music therapist) experienced in working with older adults who face challenges (e.g. bereavement) or by staff who received training on the program components (e.g. activity aides)

• Weekly

• 0.75 to 1.5 h

• 12 to 20 weeks

Public Broadcast [87]

(1 study/report)

Listening to a generation-specific radio program.

1. Familiar music: Listening to music (primarily), serials and other segments of radio programs that were popular in the 1920–1950s.

2. Interactive style: programming delivered using a friendly and interactive style including birthday messages and ‘cheerio’ calls.

• to individuals

• via a community radio station; free radio receiver provided, operated by a simple on/off switch

• Daily

• 1 h

• 3 months