Author | Year | Country and dataset | n | Study design | Mean age (sd) | Male (%) | Brain structure# | Muscle function | Associations* |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brain structure and grip strength | |||||||||
1. Sachdev et al. [32] | 2009 | Australia, PATH through life project | 432 | Observational cohort study | M 62.61 (1.42) F 62.62 (1.44) | 52.8 | Volumes of GM, WM and CSF, ICV and TBV (GM plus WM). Brain atrophy and subcortical atrophy, WMH | Grip strength in writing hand | Study: Total brain WMH volume predicted grip strength in men (beta −0.140, delta R2 0.019, p < 0.05) but not in women (beta −0.140, delta R2 0.018, p > 0.05). |
2. Anstey et al. [33] | 2007 | Australia, PATH through life project | 432 | Observational cohort study | 62.63 (1.43) | 51.6 | Total, anterior, midbody and posterior corpus callosum (CC) area | Grip strength in writing hand | Study: Grip strength adjusted for sex and ICV was found to correlate with CC midbody area (r = 0.103, p < 0.05), however CC total area and anterior and posterior CC areas did not significantly correlate with grip strength (p > 0.05). |
3. Sachdev et al. [34] | 2006 | Australia, PATH through life project | 469 | Observational cohort study | M 62.56 (1.44) F 62.53 (1.47) | 51.8 | Volumes of GM, WM and CSF, ICV and TBV (GM plus WM). Brain atrophy and subcortical atrophy, WMH | Grip strength in writing hand | Study: None, see other articles from the PATH through life project for analysis using this dataset. |
4. Sachdev et al. [35] | 2005 | Australia, PATH through life project | 478 | Observational cohort study | M 62.56 (1.44) F 62.54 (1.47) | 52.3 | WMH, ICV | Grip strength in writing hand | Study: Total brain WMH significantly predicted grip strength (beta −0.09, p = 0.002) adjusted for age, sex and depression. Correcting for comorbidity, cognition and brain atrophy did not attenuate the results (beta −0.13, p =0.001). |
5. Doi et al. [36] | 2012 | Japan | 110 | Cross-sectional study | 75.4 (7.1) | 50 | GM, WM, CSF, brain atrophy (measured using healthy volunteers) | Grip strength | Study: A MLR model found that grip strength is not related to brain atrophy (beta −0.082 (SE 0.005) p = 0.54). Adjusting for age, gender, BMI, education, MMSE, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology Index of Competence, geriatric depression scale and change in walking whilst dual tasking. No other associations given. |
6. Hardan et al. [37] | 2003 | USA, Philadelphia | 41 controls | Case–control study | 18.6 (8.6) | Not given | Caudate, putamen and total brain volume | Grip strength | Study: Non-significant trends showed a negative correlation between right grip strength and total caudate volume (r = −0.303, p = 0.05) and left grip strength (r = −0.28, p = 0.07) in the control group. Not corrected for age or sex. No relationships given for other measures. |
Brain structure and gait speed | |||||||||
7. Piguet et al. [38] | 2006 | Australia, Sydney Older Person's Study | 111 | Longitudinal observational cohort study | M 85.29 (2.89) F 85.72 (3.41) | 54.5 | Cerebellar vermis area, (V1, V2 and V3 and total), Cerebellar volume, cerebral volume and ICV | Timed walk over 5 m, adjusted for lower limb arthritis | Study: None of the brain size measures (cerebellar vermis area, cerebellar volume or cerebral volume) significantly predicted timed walk (p > 0.05) after adjustment for age (but not sex, as was not deemed to be a significant contributor after univariate analyses). |
8. Callisaya et al. [39] | 2013 | Australia, Tasmanian Study of Cognition and Gait (TASCOG) | 225 | Longitudinal cohort study | 71.4 (6.8) | 56.4 | ICV, GM, WM-lesion free, hippocampal volume, WML | 4.6 metre GaitRite computerized walkway (preferred speed) | Study: MLR were performed to investigate the relationship of longitudinal change in brain volumes and gait speed. They found that white matter atrophy (beta 0.25 (CI 0.09-0.40) p = 0.001), greater WML progression (beta −0.89 (CI −1.75- -0.02) p = 0.045), grey matter atrophy (beta 0.25 (CI 0.00-0.19) p = 0.06) and hippocampal atrophy (beta 0.01 (CI 0.00-0.02) p = 0.006) were all associated with a greater decline in gait speed. |
9. Srikanth et al. [40] | 2010 | Australia, TASCOG | 385 | Longitudinal cohort study | 72.2 (7.1) | 56 | WMLV, TBV | Gait speed using 4.2Â m GAITRite system | Study: none, see Callisaya et al. (2013) for analysis using the TASCOG dataset. |
10. Srikanth et al. [41] | 2009 | Australia, TASCOG | 294 | Longitudinal cohort study | 72.3(7.0) | 55.4 | WMLV, TBV | Gait speed using 4.2Â m GAITRite system | Study: none, see Callisaya et al. (2013) for analysis using the TASCOG dataset. |
11. Elbaz et al. [42] | 2013 | France, Three-city study | 4010 | Cohort study | 73.4 (4.6) | 38.4 | WML volumes | 6 metre walk speed (usual and maximum) | Study: Logistic regression stratified by education found that high WML volumes were not associated with slow walking speed among highly educated participants (OR = 0.72), but were associated with a 2-fold-increased risk of slow walking speed among those with low education (OR = 3.19/1.61 = 1.99) (p interaction = 0.026), adjusted for sex, age and total WM volume. Results remained unchanged after adjustment for height, BMI, and MMSE score. |
Given: WM volume did not predict walking speed at baseline, adjusted for age, gender and ICV in a MLR (p > 0.05, n = 1510), or decline in walking speed over 7 years, adjusted for age, gender, ICV and baseline walking speed, (p > 0.05, n = 928). A logistic regression found that WM volume was not significantly associated with an increased risk of being in the quartile with the highest walking speed decline (p > 0.05). | |||||||||
12. Dumurgier et al. [43] | 2012 | France, Three-city study | 1623 | Cohort study | 73.3 (4.1) | 39.5 | Regional grey matter volumes (sensorimotor cortex; frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and limbic lobes; insula; cerebellum; thalamus; basal ganglia nuclei, including the caudate nucleus, putamen and pallidum) and WMLs | Maximum walking speed over 6 metres | Study: A linear regression found that only basal ganglia volume (beta 0.075 (SE 0.025) p = 0.003) was significantly associated with walking speed; driven by caudate nucleus volume (beta 0.114 (SE 0.024) p < 0.001). All other regional GM volumes were not significantly associated with walking speed. A semi-bayes model found again only the basal ganglia volume (beta 0.061 (SE 0.028) p = 0.03) was significantly associated with walking speed; driven by caudate nucleus volume (beta 0.050 (se 0.019) p = 0.007). There was found to be a linear relationship between quartiles of caudate nucleus volume and faster walking speed (p for linear trend (0.001). These relationships were attenuated slightly for total basal ganglia volume by adjusting for MMSE and comorbidity plus smoking but not for caudate nucleus volume. All models adjusted for; age, sex, BMI, education level, ICV, volume of WMLs and silent infarcts. Given: See Elbaz et al. (2013) for Three-City Study data analysis. |
13. Dumurgier et al. [44] | 2010 | France, Three-city study | Baseline 3604, f/u at 4y 1774 | Cohort study | Baseline 73.4 (4.6) f/u 71.5 (3.6) | Baseline 38.1%, f/u 38.4% | WMH volume | Maximum walking speed over 6 metres, 1st and 4th follow up, mean 7Â years | Study: none |
Given: See Elbaz et al. (2013) for Three-City Study data analysis. | |||||||||
14. Soumare et al. [45] | 2009 | France, Three-city study | 1702 | Cohort study | 72.4 (4.1) | 39.4 | PVH, deep WMH and total WMH and total WM and ICV | Maximum walking speed over 6 metres, 1st and 4th follow up, mean 7 years | Study: A significantly lower mean walking speed was found in those with a total WMH volume above the 75th percentile compared to those below the 25th (Beta −0.026, p = 0.0003). A similar relationship was found for both deep WMH and PVH. A WMH volume greater than the 90th percentile more than doubled the risk of decline in walking speed compared with subjects with lower volumes of WMH (OR 2.6 (1.5-4.5), p = 0.001). This finding was replicated when looking at PVH but not for deep WMH volume. Given: See Elbaz et al. (2013) for Three-City Study data analysis. |
15. Starr et al. [46] | 2003 | UK, ABC1921 cohort study | 97 | Longitudinal cohort study | 78-79years | 59.8 | WMH in deep/subcortical, PVH and brain stem, Fazekas score | Self-paced time to walk 6metres | Study: A slower 6metre walk test was associated with increased brain stem lesions (F 7.11, p = 0.009, partial eta2 0.070), but not with WMH (deep) (F 3.33, p = 0.071) or PVH (F 2.47, p = 0.12). Doesn’t state if age and sex are adjusted for in these models. If HADS score and Raven’s score are adjusted for, brainstem lesions are no longer significantly associated with walking time. |
16. Manor et al. [47] | 2012 | USA, Boston, | 89 in control group | Case–control study | 65.3 (8.2) | 48.3 | GM, WM, CSF, regional GM volumes; precentral and postcentral gyri, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex | 75 metre walk test at preferred pace | Study: Within linear regression models, global GM volume and all of the regional GM volumes were not associated with walking speed in the control group (p > 0.005, Bonferroni adjusted). Adjusted for age, sex and body mass. |
17. Hajjar et al. [48] | 2010 | USA, Boston, BP in stroke study (?overlap with Novak et al.) | Non-stroke group 43 | Case–control observational study | 68 (1) | 44 | WM, GM (global and regional), CSF normalized for ICV | Gait speed over 12mins at usual pace | Study: Gait speed was not significantly associated with GM volume (p = 0.85), but was significantly associated with WM volume (B = 1.30, p = 0.03) adjusting for age, gender, BMI and antihypertensive use. |
18. Novak et al. [49] | 2009 | USA, Boston (?overlap with Hajjar et al.) | 76 | Observational study | 64.7 (7.2) | 47.4 | GM, WM, CSF, WMH all as % brain tissue volume. WMH using Wahlund scale | Gait speed over 12mins at normal walking pace | Study: Gait speed was significantly associated with frontal WM normalized for brain tissue volume (R = 0.4, p = .003). Gait speed was significantly associated with frontal GM normalized for brain tissue volume (R = 0.3, p = .01). Adjusted for age and BMI (but not gender). Doesn’t say about other regional brain volumes, ie temporal etc. WMH volumes and PVH and punctuate scores were not associated with gait speed (p > 0.05). |
19. Moscufo et al. [50] | 2012 | USA, Boston, Moscufo study – 2 year f/u | 77 | Longitudinal cohort study | 84 (3.9) | 40 | WMH volume as % of ICV and regional WMH burden expressed as % of ROI volume. At baseline and 2y f/u. | Gait speed over 2.5 metres, maximum velocity and usual walking speed At baseline and 2y f/u. | Study: Total WMH burden was significantly associated with usual walking speed at baseline but not at follow-up, and maximum walking speed was not associated with total WMH at baseline or follow up. At baseline, regional WMH burden in the splenium of corpus callosum and anterior and superior corona radiata, was significantly associated with both walking measures (p < 0.05) and in addition the body of the corpus callosum was also associated with usual walking speed (p < 0.05). At follow-up, WMH burden in the splenium was significantly associated with both walking measures (p < 0.05) and in the body with maximum walking speed. Change in WMH burden, either total or in any of the 7 regional areas, over 2 years was not associated with a decline in usual walking speed (p > 0.1). |
Given: WMH burden is significantly associated with lower gait speed after adjustment for age, sex and BMI (rho = −0.327, p = 0.0008). WM/ICV is not significantly associated with gait speed with or without adjustment (p > 0.05). GM/ICV is significantly associated with gait speed with adjustment for age, gender and BMI (rho = 0.232, p < 0.05). CSF/ICV is significantly associated with gait speed with adjustment for age, sex, BMI (rho = −0.285, p = 0.004). | |||||||||
20. Moscufo et al. [51] | 2011 | USA, Boston, Moscufo study - baseline | 99 | Cross-sectional observational study | 83(4) | 42.4 | WM, GM, WMH and CSF volumes all corrected for ICC. Brain atrophy. Regional WMH burden expressed as % of ROI volume. | Gait speed over 2.5metres (done as part of SPPB) | Study: Total WMH burden (i.e. % of ICV) correlates with gait speed (rho = −0.288, p = 0.004). Also all 9x regional burden measurements correlate with gait speed score too except sup. longitudinal fasciculus. No adjustment. |
Given: See Moscufo et al. (2012) for analysis using this dataset. | |||||||||
21. Wolfson et al. [52] | 2005 | USA, Boston, WML and mobility | 28 at baseline, 14 at follow up | Prospective longitudinal observational study | SPPB 11or12 mean 81(1.7), SPPB = <8 mean 84(3.4) | 64.3 | GM, WM, WMSA, CSF, ICCV volumes | Gait velocity over 8metres | Study: Slower baseline gait velocity predicted more WMSA at visit 1 (p < 0.05), but not change in WMSA volume between visit 1 and 2 (p < 0.07). Significant negative relationship of between-visit change in gait velocity to CSF volume (r = 0.733, p < 0.005) and a positive relationship of between-visit change in gait velocity to WM volume (r = 0.558, p < 0.05). Betas not given. Brain volumes normalized for ICCV according to image processing section. |
22. Guttmann et al. [53] | 2000 | USA, Boston, WML and mobility | 28 (12 with SPPB score >10 and 16 < 9) | Observational cross-sectional study | SPPB > 10 79(5) SPPB < 9 83(6) | 42.9 | WM, WMSA, GM, CSF (normalized for ICCV) | Gait velocity over 8metres | Study: Gait velocity was not significantly predicted by age nor WMSA volume (no figures given or p value) adjusted with and without MMSE score. |
23. Rosano et al. [54] | 2012 | USA, Cardiovascular health study | 214 | Longitudinal observational study | 72.3 (3.8) | 35.5 | Brain volumes (GM, WMH, Prefrontal area, WM, CSF) | Timed 15 ft walk at usual pace | Study: Prefrontal area volume significantly predicted time to walk in a stepwise forward model (beta −0.15, p = 0.02). |
24. Barnes et al. [55] | 2009 | USA, Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study, nested within the CVS Health Study | 3375 | Prospective, population-based, longitudinal study | 75 (no sd) | 41 | White matter disease and ventricular enlargement | Gait speed over 15Â ft | Study: none, see Rosano (2012), Rosano (2006), Rosano (2005) and Longstreth (1996) for analysis using the Cardiovascular Health study dataset |
25. Rosano et al. [56] | 2006 | USA, Cardiovascular health study | 321 | Longitudinal observational study mean f/u 4 years | 78.3 (no sd) | 39.3 | WMAs, ventricular enlargement | Gait speed at usual pace over 4 metres using GaitMat II | Study: Gait speed was significantly correlated to total WMAs (r = −.18, p < 0.0001) and white matter lesions in the brainstem (r = −.18, p = 0.01). After adjusting for age, slower gait speed was still significantly associated with white matter grade (p = 0.02). Logistic regression found that those in the lowest two quartiles of gait speed (ie < 1.02 m/s) had double the likelihood of having WMH graded 3 or above (p = 0.03), after adjustment for age, race, gender, and prevalent clinical CVD. VE graded >4 was not found to be significantly predicted by gait speed, however VE graded > 5 was, independent of age, gender, race and presence of CVD (OR = 2.91 for 1st vs. 4th quartile, OR 3.82 for 2nd vs 4th quartile) |
26. Rosano et al. [57] | 2005 | USA, Cardiovascular health study | 2450 | Longitudinal observational study mean f/u 4 years | 74.4 (4.7) | 43 | WMH and ventricular enlargement (graded as minimal, moderate and severe) | Gait speed over 15 ft at usual pace, starting from standing still | Study: Grade of ventricular enlargement was associated with baseline gait speed and mean change in gait speed/year. Gait speed decline was 2.5x that for those with severe VE than minimal VE. (p < 0.001). Grade of WMH was associated with baseline gait speed and mean change in gait speed/year (p = 0.003). In both analyses adjustment had been made for age, sex, race and education and CV risk factors (BMI, systolic BP, antihypertensive meds, internal carotid wall thickness, and ETOH intake) and prevalent CV disease. |
27. Silbert et al. [58] | 2008 | USA, Oregon Brain Aging Study | 104 | Longitudinal cross-sectional study | 85.1 (5.6) | 38.5 | PV WMH and s/c WMH, total WMH, brain volume, CSF volume, hippocampal volume, ICV | Gait speed over 9 m. Self-selected pace. | Study: Adjusted for age and ICV, higher baseline total WMH vol. was associated with increased rate of change in timed walking in seconds (r2 = 0.08, p = 0.0052). This relationship became non-significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons to threshold p value. PVH volume is associated with increased rate of change in timed walk in seconds (r2 = 0.12, p = .0039). However, baseline subcortical WMH vol. was not related to change in gait performance over time. Higher rate of PVH accumulation is associated with increased rate of change of time to walk 9 m (r2 = 0.15, p = .0453). Adjusted for age, ICV and baseline WMH volume: |
Calculated: In an unadjusted GLM, gait speed was predicted by total brain, WMH and hippocampal volume (p < 0.001). The relationship remained significant after adjusting for sex, age, ICV and height, for total brain volume (t = 3.61, p = .004, partial eta squared 4.3%) and WMH (t = −2.80, p = 0.006, partial eta squared 4.4%) but not for hippocampal volume. | |||||||||
28. Marquis et al. [59] | 2002 | USA, Oregon Brain Aging Study | 108 | Longitudinal cross-sectional study | 83.2 (7.9) | 37 | Total brain volume, hippocampal volume, ICV | Gait speed over 9 m. Self-selected pace. | Study: Negative correlation between hippocampal volume and time to walk 30 ft (r = −.12). No p value given. |
Calculated: See Silbert et al. (2008) for Oregon Brain Aging Study data analysis. | |||||||||
Brain structure and gait speed plus grip strength or isometric knee extension strength (IKES) | |||||||||
29. Rosano et al. [60] | 2010 | Iceland, AGES-Reykjavik study | 795 | Longitudinal cohort study | M 75.6 (5.4) F 75.6 (5.7) | 41.1 | MTR, ICV, brain parenchyma volume, semiquantitative subcortical WMH and PVH and total WMH volume, brain atrophy index | Gait speed over 6 m usual speed and maximal isometric knee extension strength | Study: In men: Time to walk 6metres predicted by WMH volume (beta 0.13, p = 0.02) but not brain atrophy or peak height MTR (adjusted for age and brain size as includes measure of brain atrophy). In women: Usual walking speed predicted by lower MTR height (i.e. indicating abnormal brain tissue) (beta −0.14 (p = 0.01), increased WMH (beta 0.12, p = 0.003) and greater brain atrophy (beta 0.15, p = 0.01) (adjusted for age and brain size). Lower muscle strength associated with peak height MTR (p < 0.005, beta not given). |
30. Aribisala et al. [61] | 2013 | UK, LBC 1936 study | 694 | Longitudinal cohort study | 69.5 (0.7) wave 1 and 72.5 (0.7) wave 2 | 52.9 | TBV, ventricular volume, GM, NAWM and WML at wave 2 | 6 metre walk (normal walking pace) and grip strength at wave 1 and 2 | Study: Grip strength at wave 1 significantly predicts ventricular volume at wave 2 (standardized beta −0.10), however there was no significant association with other brain volumes. 6metre walk at wave 1 predicted TBV (−0.07), ventricular volume (0.09), NAWM (−0.07) and WML (0.11) all p < 0.05. Grip strength at wave 2 was associated with ventricular volume (−0.11) and NAWM (0.08). 6 MW at wave 2 was associated with TBV (−0.07), NAWM (−0.09) and WML (0.11) all p < 0.05. Change in physical function between wave 1 and 2 (i.e. decrease in grip strength or increase in 6 MW) was not significantly associated with any brain volume measure. GM volume did not significantly associate with any of the physical function variables at wave 1 or 2. All analyses were adjusted for age, ICV, age 11 IQ, years of education, social class, comorbidity and smoking status. Corrected for false discovery rate. |
31. Rosano et al. [62] | 2011 | USA, Cardiovascular health study | 643 | Longitudinal observational study | 72.1-72.6 broken down by BP diagnosis | 31-42.7 broken down by BP diagnosis | WMH scale 0-9 | Gait speed over 15Â ft, starting from standstill. Grip strength of dominant hand. | Study: none, see Rosano (2012), Rosano (2006), Rosano (2005) and Longstreth (1996) for analysis using the Cardiovascular Health study dataset. |
32. Rosano et al. [63] | 2008 | USA, Cardiovascular health study | 3156 | Longitudinal observational study mean f/u 4Â years | 74 (4.6) | 43.2 | White matter disease score, brain atrophy score (ventricular enlargement) | Gait speed over 15Â ft and grip strength in dominant hand | Study: none, see Rosano (2012), Rosano (2006), Rosano (2005) and Longstreth (1996) for analysis using the Cardiovascular Health study dataset. |
33. Longstreth et al. [64] | 1996 | USA, Cardiovascular health study | 3658 | Longitudinal observational study | 70.7 (no sd) | 41.7 | MR WMSA graded 0-9 | Time to walk 15feet, grip strength in dom and non-dom hand | Study: Time to walk 15 ft correlated with white matter grade (0–9) (r = 0.153, p < 0.001), with adjustment for age, sex and presence of clinically silent stroke on MRI. Same model showed no significant associated between grip strength in dom hand or non-dom hand and white matter grade (p > 0.05). |