Table 2 Balance board training (Standing exercises with feet in place during most exercises, high challenge balance)

Cognitive-motor only

Orsega-Smith 2012 [52] N = 34

IG1: WBB balance + strength 4 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 72.1 (7.8), 55–86; independent, 88% self-reported health good or very good, 0% poor; overweight (mean BMI 27.19 (4.99); high-functioning (ceiling effect in several measures

+

+

IG1

IG1 vs CG:

  BBS pre 51.69 (10.05) post 53.13 (8.48), p < .05

  BBS mean difference 2.33 (0.77), p = .004

IG2: WBB balance + strength 8 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

  STS pre 11.81 (3.62) post 13.69 (3.89), p < .01,

  STS mean difference 2.54 (0.69), p = .002

  ADL pre 126.14 (19.53) post 130.36 (12.70), p < .05

IG2 vs CG:

IG2

  BBS p = .05

  BBS pre 54.22 (1.79) post 55.44 (0.89 3), p < .05

  STS p = .10

TUG pre 7.14 (1.08) post 6.74 (0.76), p = .06

CG: Passive

  ADL pre 130.22 (8.00) post 135.00 (3.50), p < .05

No

  ABC pre 87.85 (11.19) post 93.93 (5.52), p < .05

IG1 vs IG2: no sig differences in any measure

IG1 vs CG: TUG

No

IG2: vs CG:TUG

IG1: TUG, ABC, FES

IG2: STS, FES

Bieryla 2013 [64] N = 9

IG: WBB balance + strength 3 wk, 3/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 70+; 70–92; 81.5 (5.5); healthy; able to stand unassisted for 30 minutes; walk a minimum of 6 meters without aid

+ follow-up (1mo)

  BBS pre 50 (47.5-51.5) follow-up 53 (52–54), p = .046

CG: N/A (reported as RCT but only within group analysis)

No

Post: BBS, FAB, FR , TUG follow-up: FAB, FR, TUG

Young 2010 [56] N = 6

IG: WBB balance (custom-made) 4 wk, 10 sessions, 20 min

Community-dwelling; age 84.1 (5.1); healthy; no falls past year

+ sway variability decreased in EC A-P t(5) = 3.042; p = .03,

No

CG: N/A

Sway variability EO and EC M-L

Kim 2013 [48] N = 32

IG: slow static balance and strength 8 wk, 3/wk, 60 min

Community-dwelling; age IG 68.3 (3.7), CG 66.2 (3.9); 65–75; independently ambulatory; able to stand on 1 leg for 15 seconds without any assistance; no history of orthopedic or neurologic surgery; MMSE ≥ 24; no dementia, cardiovascular disease, headache or dizziness

+

+

Hip extension 55%, flexion 29.9%, adduction 48.6%, abduction 41.9%, all p < .001

All hip muscles (p < .001

CG: passive

GRF backward stepping EO 15.4% p = .004, EC 11.5% p = .044

GRF backward stepping test EC p = .028

GRF cross-over stepping EO 28.7% p < .001, EC 26.6% p < .001

GRF cross-over stepping test EC p = .013

No GRF EO backward and cross-over stepping

Lamoth 2011 [66], Kosse 2011 [49] N = 9

IG: Static balance 6 wk, 3/wk, 20 min

Community-dwelling; age 77 (5), 65+; healthy; highly motivated to exercise; able to walk without aids; no orthopedic or neurological disorders which prevent them from walking without aids or pressing the buttons on the interface; adequate vision; no cognitive impairments

+ BBS p < .01 Figure-of-eight p < .01

CG: passive (cross-over)

No Tandem, OLS with EO/EC

Bisson 2007 [46] N = 24

IG: IREX, static standing 10 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 74.4 (4.3), 65+; no walking aids; no major cognitive impairment (MMSE > 19); no unexplained falls last year; no peripheral neuropathy, an uncontrolled heart problem, severe arthritis, severe back pain, a recent leg injury (last 6 mo), tunnel vision, or any vestibular problem

+ CB&M pre 58.6, post 64.2, follow-up 64.7 F(2,46) = 14.5, p < 0.01

No CB&M, RT , Sway no differences between groups and no training effect

RT main effect of time F(2,44) = 10.30, p < 0.01, no change between post and follow-up

No Sway

CG: Biofeedback training on force plate 10 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Pluchino 2012 [53] N = 27

IG: WBB balance + strength 8 wk, 2/wk, 60 min

Community-dwelling; age 72.5 (8.4) of n = 40; independent; no neurologic disorders affecting balance; no severe cognitive impairment; no major depression; no unstable disease; no severe vestibular problems; no assistance in ADL

+ DMA score pre 808.75 (98.17) post 761.13 (131.75), p = .036 No FROP-COM, TUG, OLS, POMA gait, POMA balance, FR, FES - Sway area pre −0.39 (0.23) post 1.65 (1.47), p < .001 (!)

No FROP-COM, TUG, OLS, POMA, FR, Sway, dynamic posturography, FES

CG1: balance

Sway velocity pre 1.67 (0.57) post 1.90 (0.71), p = .013

CG2: Tai Chi Both 8 wk, 2/wk, 60 min

Chen 2012 [47] N = 40

IG: Static balance and strength (power) 6 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 75.9 (7.9), 65+; no dizziness/vertigo, degenerative neurological diseases, stroke, lower limbs fractures, cardio-pulmonary distress and any sensory, visual, auditory or cognitive impairment that would hinder testing procedures; no medication known to affect balance

+ POMA pre 15.68 (1.38) post 23.33 (2.29), p < .001, +50%

+ POMA p < .05

TUG p < .05

CG: Strength and balance 6 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

STS p < .05

Power p < .05

mFES p < .05

FR pre 16.49 (3.37) post 22.26 (4.21), p < .001, +35%

No FR

TUG pre 17.15 (4.49) post 12.90 (3.07), p = .026, −25%

STS pre 17.20 (3.51) post 12.46 (2.99), p = .004, −28%

Muscle power pre 4.56 (1.43) post 7.47(2.81), p < .001, +64% mFES pre 5.52 (1.28) post 8.14 (0.94), p = .002, +47%

Suarez 2006 [41] N = 26

IG: Static balance under changing sensory conditions 6 wk, daily, 40 min

Outpatient clinic; age 73–82; balance disorder; >2 falls in last year; no musculoskeletal disorders, no dementia; no PD or neuropathy

+ Sway area normal standing pre 10.4 (2.3) post 3.5 (1.4), p < .001

CG: N/A

Sway area optokinetic stimulation pre 22.4 (4.3) post 10.4 (4.2), p < .001

Sway velocity normal standing pre 3.2 (0.5) post 2.4 (0.4), p < .001

Sway velocity optokinetic stimulation pre 4.9 (1.4) post 2.9 (0.3), p < .001

Duque 2013 [40] N = 28 (within) N = 58 (between)

IG: Static balance under changing sensory conditions plus ususal care (sham) 6 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 65+; IG 79.3 (10); CG 75 (8); falls and fracture clinic; at least 1 fall past 6 mo; poor balance; ambulate independently with a cane or walker; able to stand unaided for 60secs; MMSE ≥ 22; no PD, or neuromuscular condition; GDS ≤ 7; no severe visual impairment

+ 6 wk

+ 9mo falls 1.1 (0.7) vs CG 2 (0.2), p < .01

LOS 31%, p < .01 Sway area EC hard surface −33%; EC foam −52%, optokinetic stimulation 25%, Sway velocity vertical 50%, horizontal 33%, all p < .01

LOS, p < .01 Sway area optokinetic stimulation, p < .01

CG: Usual care (Sham)

Sway velocity horizontal and vertical optokinetic stimulation, p < .01

SAFFE , p < .01

No Sway area standing hard surface/foam

Padala 2012 [36] N = 22

IG: WBB balance + strength 8 wk, 5/wk, 30 min

Assisted living facility; age 80.5 (7.5), 60+; mild AD; MMSE ≥ 18; excluded: myocardial infarction, transient ischemic attack or stroke in the previous 6 mo, serious mental illness which impacted memory, active cancer diagnosis with the exception of skin cancer, poor prognosis for survival (e.g., severe congestive heart failure), severe sensory (visual or auditory) or musculoskeletal impairments, or a required use of a wheel-chair for ambulation; 44% walking aid; mean 3.2 comorbidities

+ BBS change 6.27 (5.27), p003

No BBS, POMA, TUG, ADL, IADLs, MMSE

CG: Walking 8 wk, 5/wk, 30 min

POMA change 1.82 (2.04), p = .013

No TUG, ADL, IADL, MMSE

Szturm 2011 [63] N = 27

IG: static balance on firm or compliant surface 8 wk, 2/wk, 45 min

Geriatric day hospital; age 80.7 (6.5), 65–85; no cognitive impairment (MMSE > 24); independent ambulant; no condition or disability that prevents participation; 89% walking aids; mean gait speed <0.7 m/s

+ BBS p < .001 TUG p = .07 LOB p = .03 ABC p < .05

+ BBS t = 5.9, df = 24, p < .001

TUG t = 1.87, df = 25, p = .08

No Gait speed

LOB U = 37.2, p = .007

ABC U = 44.5, p = .02

No

Gait speed

CG: Strength, aerobics, balance

Yen 2011 [34] N = 42

IG: Static balance with tilt 6 wk, 2/wk, 30 min CG1: balance (incl. tilt board) 6 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Outpatient clinic; age 70.7 (6.4); idiopathic PD (Hoehn and Yahr stages II and III); no cognitive impairment (MMSE > 24); no uncontrolled chronic diseases; no other neurological, cardiovascular or orthopaedic disorders affecting postural stability; no on-off motor fluctuation; no dyskinesia > grade 3 (UPDRS)

+ SOT-6 pre 37.4 (25.3-49.4) post 54.3 (44.1-64.5) follow-up 48.6 (36.8-60.4), p < .05/3

+ Vs CG 2: DT SOT-6, p < .05/3

DT SOT-6 pre 39.9 (27.9-52.0) post 55.3 (43.7-66.9) follow-up 52.6 (41.3-66.9), p < .05/3

No Vs CG 1: no in any measures Vs CG 2: ST SOT-6

CG2: none

ST SOT 1–5 DT SOT 1–5 Verbal RT

No SOT 1–5 Verbal RT DT SOT 1-5

Cognitive-motor plus other components

Franco 2012 [57] N = 32

IG: WBB plus strength and balance 3 wk, 2/wk, 10-15 min + daily 15 min

Independent-living facility; age 78.3 (6); able to walk independently; adequate vision; able to stand for at least 2 min; no reduced weight-bearing capability; cognitively able to understand instructions

+ BBS F(1,29) = 17.034, p < .001, change 3.55 (5.03)

No BBS, POMA

POMA F(1,29) = 9.715, p < .004, change 0.91 (2.39)

CG1: strength and balance 3 wk, 2/wk, 30-45 min

CG2: none

Fung 2012 [35] N = 50

IG: WBB plus strength and balance (TKR)

Outpatient clinic; age 68 (11); following knee replacement; full lower extremity weight bearing; no active painful OA in lower limb; no visual impairment

No knee extension, knee flexion and ABC

LOS, 2/wk, 15 min + 2/wk, 60 min?

CG: Balance + strength

LOS, 2/wk, 60 min

Griffin 2012 [44] N = 65

IG: WBB plus strength and balance 7 wk? CG: strength and balance 7 wk?

Age 83.2 (5.5), 67–90; met the existing criteria to join the falls prevention training group (poor performance TUG, FR, 180 degree turn, flexibility);

+TUG −17% FR

+ TUG FR

No OLS

No OLS

Kubicki 2014 [45] N = 32

IG: Fovea, static standing (position/foam/unstable plate according to individual’s ability) + strength and balance; 3 wk, 2/wk, 10 sequences + 3 wk, 3/wk, 30 min

Short-term rehabilitation service; age 71–94; IG 82.2 (6.9), CG 81.5 (5.0); frail (Fried criteria); balance disorder; able to stand unassisted; multiple causes for hospitalisation; no pyramidal or extra-pyramidal syndrome or neuropathy; MMSE ≥24; gait speed = 0.65 (0.23)

+ Hand RT (ms) pre 605 (244) post 446 (110), p < .05

+ Hand RT F1,29 = 5.057, p = 0.032

No Sway (mean velocity) TUG ST gait DT gait

-Sway velocity (APA) F(1,29) = 8.031, p < 0.01 (!)

CG: strength and balance; 3 wk, 3/wk, 30 min

Sway velocity (acc) p = .075