Table 1 Step training (dynamic balance, cognitive training)

Cognitive-motor only

Schoene 2013 [58] N = 32

IG: DDR + CSRT 8 wk, 2-3/wk, 20 min

Independent living (retirement village); age 78 (5), 69–85; able to walk without a walking aid for 20 m, able to step in place unassisted; no disabilities in ADL/IADL functions; no cognitive impairment (MMSE < 24); no neurodegenerative disease; no other health problems affecting stepping ability; no unstable health conditions

Unpublished

+

+

CSRT RT pre 754 (81) post 679 (67) p = .008,

CSRT (F31,1) = 18.203, p < .001,

CG: Passive

CSRT MT pre 252 (44) post 210 (47) p = .035

PPA (F31,1) = 12.706, p < .001,

PPA pre 1.75 (0.64) post 1.15 (0.85) p < .001

sway velocity (F31,1) = 4.226, p = .049

Sway mm pre 386 (132) post 301 (133) p = .001

contrast sensitivity (F31,1) = 4.415, p = .044

proprioception pre 3.0 (1.7) post 2.3 (1.1) p = .091

DT TUG (F31,1) = 4.226, p = .049;

STS pre 11.5 (2.3) post 10.7 (2.8) p = .032

SST p = .094;

DT TUG pre 14.1 (5.6) post 11.6 (3.7) p = .002

SST pre 50.8 (17.2) post 42.0 (6.8) p = .05

No hand RT, contrast sensitivity, lower limb strength, AST, TUG, icon-FES, TMT A + B

No proprioception, hand RT, lower limb strength, STS, AST, TUG, icon-FES, TMT A + B

Studenski 2010 [55] N= 25

IG: DDR 12 wk, 2/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 80.2 (5.4), 65+; healthy; able to walk 0.5 miles

+ narrow walk time pre 5.2 (1.7) change −0.5 (1.6), p = .03 and ABC pre 84.5 (13) change 4.9 (10.1), p = .01;

CG: N/A

No change DSST -balance subscore SPPB

Lai 2012 [50] N = 30

IG: XMSS 6 wk, 3/wk, 30 min

Community-dwelling; age 72.1 (4.8), 65+; ambulant without walking aids; no neurological disorder; no arthritis or visual or cardiac impairment that affects walking

+

BBS pre 50.53(4.75) post 53.87(3.56), p = .001,

TUG pre 9.54(3.52) post 8.54(2.85), p = .046, sway area eyes open and closed pre (320.80(273.45) post 191.00(70.31), p = .052, pre 342.54(213.67) post 262.20(142.11), p = .092 respectively) sway velocity eyes open and closed pre (9.37(2.30) post 8.10(1.62), p = .046, pre 13.11(5.12) post 11.28(3.55), p = .024 respectively)

CG: Passive

OLS pre 31.80(18.39) post 48.74(26.67), p = .062

MFES pre 131.13(6.56) post 136(6.07), p = .001

Cognitive-motor plus other components

De Bruin 2011 [59] N = 28

IG: DDR + strength and balance 12 wk, 2/wk, 45-60 min

Assisted living facilities; age 86.2 (7.1), 65+; ambulant without walking aids; no neurological disorder; no arthritis or visual or cardiac impairment that affects walking

+

+

DTC: gait speed pre 22 (12.1) post 14.4 (8.6), p = .006, cadence pre 15.8 (13.7) post 10 (7.3), p = .06; stride time pre 20.7 (14.5) post 11.6 (10) p = .004, and step length pre 11.1 (8.3) post 5.5 (5.4) p = .001; FES-I: pre 24.9 (4.5) post 21.9 (5.2), p = .005

DTC: gait speed F(1,26) = 6.25, p = .019, stride time (s) F(1,26) = 5.7, p = .025, step length (cm) F(1,26) = 11.51, p = .002, FES-I: F(1,26) = 2.95, p = .098

CG: Mostly seated exercises 12 wk, 1/wk, 30-45 min

No

No

ETGUG, DT step time

DTC Cadence, DTC of step time, ETGUG

Pichierri

IG:

Hostels for the

+

+

2012a [62] N = 31

DDR + strength and balance 12 wk, 2/wk, 50-60 min

elderly; age 86.2 (4.6), 65+; 50% considered high fall-risk; no major cognitive impairment (MMSE ≥ 22); able to walk 8 m; no acute or chronic unstable illness; adequate vision

ST and DT Improvements throughout most walking conditions;

DT gait speed (U = 26, p = .041, r = .45) and single support time (U = 24, p = .029, r = .48) fast walking condition No ST gait, and some parameters DT gait

DTC decreased throughout most parameters in ST and DT walking No FES-I

FES-I

CG: Strength and balance 12 wk, 2/wk, 40 min

Pichierri 2012b [61] N = 15

IG: DDR + strength and balance 12 wk, 2/wk, 60 min

Care homes; age 84.6 (4), 65+; no major cognitive impairment (MMSE ≥ 22); able to stand upright for 5 min; no acute or chronic unstable illness; adequate vision

+

+

step reaction time: time reduction in all assessed temporal parameters ST: −15.7%; DT: −20.1%; step directions with significance and step directions with a trend to significance for step initiation, foot off, and foot contact times for most variables

step reaction time: initiation time of forward steps under DT (U = 9, p = .034, r = .55) and backward steps under DT conditions (U = 10, p = .045, r = .52)

CG: Non-specific physical activities depending on activity

No

ST conditions step reaction time

DT most other variables of step initiation, lift-off and movement speed